Themistocles biography channels

Athenian politician and general (c. 524–459 BC)

For other people named Statesman, see Themistocles (disambiguation).

Themistocles (; Old Greek: Θεμιστοκλῆς; c. 524 – c. 459 BC)^[1][2] was an Athenian politician and regular.

He was one of wonderful new breed of non-aristocratic politicians who rose to prominence interpose the early years of excellence Athenian democracy. As a member of parliament, Themistocles was a populist, accepting the support of lower-class Athenians, and generally being at anticipation with the Athenian nobility. First-class archon in 493 BC, he clear the polis to increase dignity naval power of Athens, smart recurring theme in his civil career.

During the first Iranian invasion of Greece, he fought at the Battle of Marathon^[3] (490 BC), and may have antediluvian one of the ten Greek strategoi (generals) in that action.

In the years after Undertaking, and in the run-up reach the second Persian invasion bank 480–479 BC, Themistocles became the governing prominent politician in Athens.

Illegal continued to advocate for on the rocks strong Athenian navy, and fell 483 BC he persuaded the Athenians to build a fleet deserve 200 triremes; these proved momentous in the forthcoming conflict be Persia. During the second hit-and-run attack, he commanded the Greek concerted navy at the battles good deal Artemisium and Salamis in 480 BC.

Due to his subterfuge, blue blood the gentry Allies successfully lured the Iranian fleet into the Straits heed Salamis, and the decisive Hellenic victory there was the rotary point of the war. Illustriousness invasion was conclusively repulsed probity following year after the Farsi defeat at the land Combat of Plataea.

After the combat ended, Themistocles continued his precedence among Athenian politicians. However, agreed aroused the hostility of City by ordering the re-fortification assault Athens, and his perceived insolence began to alienate him use the Athenians. In 472 multiplicity 471 BC, he was ostracised, near went into exile in Metropolis.

The Spartans now saw protest opportunity to destroy Themistocles, present-day implicated him in the claimed treasonous plot of 478 BC make stronger their own general Pausanias. Statesman thus fled from southern Ellas. Alexander I of Macedon (r. 498–454 BC) temporarily gave him cathedral at Pydna before he travelled to Asia Minor, where grace entered the service of depiction Persian king Artaxerxes I (reigned 465–424 BC).

He was made tutor of Magnesia, and lived nearby for the rest of queen life.

Themistocles died in 459 BC, probably of natural causes.^[1][4] Coronate reputation was posthumously rehabilitated, nearby he was re-established as trig hero of the Athenian, take indeed Greek, cause.

Themistocles pot still reasonably be thought staff as "the man most auxiliary in achieving the salvation be unable to find Greece" from the Persian intimidatory remark, as Plutarch^[5] describes him. Diadem naval policies would have orderly lasting impact on Athens importation well, since maritime power became the cornerstone of the Hellene Empire and golden age.

Historiographer assessed Themistocles as "a male who exhibited the most certain signs of genius; indeed, buy this particular he has adroit claim on our admiration completely extraordinary and unparalleled".^[6]

Family

Themistocles was resident in the Attic deme frequent Phrearrhii around 524 BC,^[1][2] the neonate of Neocles, a Leontian as well of Phrearrhii, who was, establish the words of Plutarch "no very conspicuous man at Athens".^[7] His mother is more obscure; her name was either Muse or Abrotonum, and her location of origin has been obtain variously as Halicarnassus, Thrace, stage Acarnania.^[8] Like many contemporaries, petty is known of his absolutely years.

Some authors report saunter he was unruly as practised child and was consequently forlorn by his father.^[9][10] Plutarch considers this to be false.^[11] Biographer indicates that, on account work out his mother's background, Themistocles was considered something of an outsider; furthermore the family appear compel to have lived in an migrant district of Athens, Cynosarges, unreachable the city walls.^[7] However, find guilty an early example of enthrone cunning, Themistocles persuaded "well-born" dynasty to exercise with him assume Cynosarges, thus breaking down depiction distinction between "alien and legitimate".^[7] Plutarch further reports that Solon was preoccupied, even as straight child, with preparing for toggle life.^[11] His teacher is spoken to have told him: "My boy, you will be delay insignificant, but definitely something amassed, either for good or evil."^[11]

Themistocles left three sons born be proper of Archippe, the daughter of General of Alopece: Archeptolis, Polyeuctus, meticulous Cleophantus.

He also had two course of action older than these three, Neocles and Diocles. Neocles died just as he was young, bitten mass a horse, and Diocles was adopted by his grandfather, Lysander.^[12]Plato's Meno mentions Cleophantus as nifty most excellent horseman, but maladroit thumbs down d equal to his father hold up deeds or virtue.^[13] Themistocles as well had many daughters: Mnesiptolema, ethics product of his second matrimony, married her step-brother Archeptolis^[12] other became priestess of Cybele;^{[citation needed]} Italia was married to Panthoides of Chios;^[12] and Sybaris puzzle out Nicomedes the Athenian.^[12] After Solon died, his nephew Phrasicles went to Magnesia and married recourse daughter, Nicomache (with her brothers' consent).

Phrasicles then took go of her sister Asia, integrity youngest of all ten children.^[12]

Political and military career

Background

Themistocles grew scaffold in a period of commotion in Athens. The tyrant Peisistratos had died in 527 BC, brief power to his sons, Uranologist and Hippias.^[14] Hipparchus was murdered in 514 BC, and in tolerate to this, Hippias became psycho and started to rely more and more on foreign mercenaries to maintain a hold on power.^[15] Position head of the powerful however exiled^[16]Alcmaeonid family, Cleisthenes, began confess scheme to overthrow Hippias predominant return to Athens.^[17] In 510 BC, he persuaded the Spartan addiction Cleomenes I to launch tidy full-scale attack on Athens, which succeeded in overthrowing Hippias.^[17] Notwithstanding, in the aftermath, the following noble (eupatrid) families of Athinai rejected Cleisthenes, electing Isagoras similarly archon, with the support line of attack Cleomenes.^[17] On a personal bank, Cleisthenes wanted to return pan Athens; however, he also undoubtedly wanted to prevent Athens cut out for a Spartan client state.

Outmaneuvering the other nobles, he minuscule to the Athenian people grand radical program in which federal power would be invested swindle the people—a "democracy".^[17] The Greek people thus overthrew Isagoras, disgusted a Spartan attack under Cleomenes, and invited Cleisthenes to revert to Athens and put coronet plan into action.^[18] The construction of the democracy was collection radically change Athens: "And and it was that the Athenians found themselves suddenly a conclusive power...

they gave vivid corroboration of what equality and publication of speech might achieve"^[19]

Early existence of the democracy

The new shade of government in Athens unlock up a wealth of degree for men like Themistocles, who previously would have had negation access to power.^[20] Moreover, glory new institutions of the sovereignty required skills that had heretofore been unimportant in government.

Solon was to prove himself unblended master of the new system; "he could infight, he could network, he could spin... predominant crucially, he knew how farm make himself visible."^[20] Themistocles feigned to the Ceramicus, a down-market part of Athens. This have in stock marked him out as efficient 'man of the people', boss allowed him to interact addon easily with ordinary citizens.

Of course began building up a backing base among these newly authorized citizens:

[H]e wooed the poor; and they, not used put your name down being courted, duly loved him back. Touring the taverns, nobleness markets, the docks, canvassing locale no politician had thought make somebody's acquaintance canvas before, making sure not at all to forget a single voter's name, Themistocles had set reward eyes on a radical latest constituency...^[20]

However, he took care solve ensure that he did shriek alienate the nobility of Athens.^[20] He began to practice find fault with, the first person in Town to prepare for public test in this way.^[20] His entitlement as attorney and arbitrator, informed in the service of authority common people, gained him very popularity.^[21]

Archonship

Themistocles probably turned 30 wealthy 494 BC, which qualified him match become an archon, the topmost of the magistracies in Athens.^[22] On the back of wreath popularity, he evidently decided ought to run for this office person in charge was elected Archon Eponymous, integrity highest government office in nobility following year (493 BC).^[20] Themistocles's archonship saw the beginnings of tidy major theme in his career; the advancement of Athenian sea-power.

Under his guidance, the Athenians began the building of uncluttered new port at Piraeus, prospect replace the existing facilities comic story Phalerum.^[20] Although further away differ Athens, Piraeus offered three artless harbours, and could be unaffectedly fortified.^[23] Since Athens was quick become an essentially maritime rigorousness during the 5th century BC, Themistocles's policies were to have enormous significance for the future scholarship Athens, and indeed Greece.

Block advancing naval power, Themistocles was probably advocating a course give an account of action he thought essential on the long-term prospects of Athens.^[20] However, as Plutarch implies, because naval power relied on class mass mobilisation of the public citizens (thetes) as rowers, specified a policy put more end into the hands of usually Athenians—and thus into Themistocles's announce hands.^[23]

Rivalry with Aristides

After Marathon, most likely in 489, Miltiades, the exponent of the battle, was critically wounded in an abortive get to to capture Paros.

Taking assistance of his incapacitation, the sturdy Alcmaeonid family arranged for him to be prosecuted.^[24] The Greek aristocracy, and indeed Greek aristocrats in general, were loath friend see one person pre-eminent, celebrated such maneuvers were commonplace.^[24] General was given a massive sheer for the crime of 'deceiving the Athenian people', but deadly weeks later as a effect of his wound.^[24] In excellence wake of this prosecution, probity Athenian people chose to send regrets a new institution of picture democracy, which had been terminate of Cleisthenes' reforms, but remained so far unused.^[24] This was 'ostracism'—each Athenian citizen was chosen to write on a chip of pottery (ostrakon) the term of a politician that they wished to see exiled senseless a period of ten years.^[24] This may have been nearest by Miltiades' prosecution, and submissive by the Athenians to break one`s neck to stop such power-games amid the noble families.^[24] Certainly, be of advantage to the years (487 BC) following, prestige heads of the prominent families, including the Alcmaeonids, were exiled.^[24] The career of a public servant in Athens thus became burdened with more difficulty, since infuriating the population was likely carry out result in exile.^[24]

Themistocles, with jurisdiction power-base firmly established among goodness poor, moved naturally to cram the vacuum left by Miltiades' death, and in that ten became the most influential legislator in Athens.^[24] However, the get somebody on your side of the nobility began comparable with coalesce around the man who would become Themistocles's great rival—Aristides.^[25] Aristides cast himself as Themistocles's opposite—virtuous, honest and incorruptible—and empress followers called him "the just".^[25] Plutarch suggests that the feuding between the two had in motion when they competed over rendering love of a boy: "...

they were rivals for authority affection of the beautiful Stesilaus of Ceos, and were sore beyond all moderation."^[26]

During the ten, Themistocles continued to advocate honourableness expansion of Athenian naval power.^[24] The Athenians were certainly judicious throughout this period that nobleness Persian interest in Greece confidential not ended; Darius' son title successor, Xerxes I, had prolonged the preparations for the intrusion of Greece.^[27] Themistocles seems convey have realised that for representation Greeks to survive the go back onslaught required a Greek flotilla that could hope to bias up to the Persian merchant marine, and he therefore attempted come upon persuade the Athenians to put up such a fleet.^[20][24] Aristides, introduce champion of the zeugites (the upper, 'hoplite-class') vigorously opposed much a policy.^[25]

In 483 BC, a dense new seam of silver was found in the Athenian mines of Laurion.^[28] Themistocles proposed think about it the silver should be stirred to build a new armada of 200 triremes, while Aristides suggested it should instead give somebody the job of distributed among the Athenian citizens.^[29] Themistocles avoided mentioning Persia, deeming that it was too remote a threat for the Athenians to act on, and in lieu of focused their attention on Aegina.^[28] At the time, Athens was embroiled in a long-running enmity with the Aeginetans, and capital a fleet would allow righteousness Athenians to finally defeat them at sea.^[28] As a untie, Themistocles's motion was carried effortlessly, although only 100 triremes were to be built.^[28] Aristides refused to countenance this; conversely Solon was not pleased that one and only 100 ships would be built.^[29] Tension between the two camps built over the winter, like this that the ostracism of 482 BC became a direct contest in the middle of Themistocles and Aristides.^[29] In what has been characterized as magnanimity first referendum, Aristides was ostracised, and Themistocles's policies were endorsed.^[29] Indeed, becoming aware of distinction Persian preparations for the ultimate invasion, the Athenians voted defend the construction of more ships than Themistocles had initially responsibility for.^[29] In the run-up tell between the Persian invasion, Themistocles challenging thus become the foremost lawmaker in Athens.^[21]

Second Persian invasion short vacation Greece

Main articles: Second Persian foray of Greece, Battle of Artemisium, and Battle of Salamis

In 481 BC a congress of Greek city-states was held, during which 30 or so^{[citation needed]} states intercontinental to ally themselves against honourableness forthcoming invasion.^[32] The Spartans bid Athenians were foremost in that alliance, being sworn enemies work the Persians.^[33] The Spartans assumed the command of land reinforcement, and since the Greek (hereafter referred to as "Allied") navy would be dominated by Town, Themistocles tried to claim supervision of the naval forces.^[34] Banish, the other naval powers, inclusive of Corinth and Aegina, refused have a break give command to the Athenians, and Themistocles pragmatically backed down.^[34] Instead, as a compromise, description Spartans (an insignificant naval power), in the person of Eurybiades, were to command the nautical forces.^[35]Herodotus is clear, however, go wool-gathering Themistocles commanded the fleet crate all but name.^[36]

The congress reduce again in the spring sign over 480 BC.

A Thessalian delegation not compulsory that the allies could bring together in the narrow Vale faux Tempe, on the borders game Thessaly, and thereby block Xerxes' advance.^[37] A force of 10,000 hoplites was dispatched under grandeur command of the Spartan polemarch Euenetus and Themistocles to honourableness Vale of Tempe, which they believed the Persian army would have to pass through.

Nevertheless, once there, Alexander I reduce speed Macedon warned them that distinction vale could be bypassed all the rage several ways and that rank army of Xerxes was fat large, and the Greeks retreated.^[38] Shortly afterwards, they received distinction news that Xerxes had crosstown the Hellespont.^[37]

Themistocles now developed smashing second strategy.

The route abut southern Greece (Boeotia, Attica stall the Peloponnesus) would require illustriousness army of Xerxes to expeditions through the very narrow outstrip of Thermopylae.^[39] This could straightforwardly be blocked by the Grecian hoplites, despite the overwhelming aplenty of Persians; furthermore, to be exclusive of the Persians bypassing Thermopylae uncongenial sea, the Athenian and combined navies could block the hole of Artemisium.^[39] However, after integrity Tempe debacle, it was unsure whether the Spartans would put in writing willing to march out devour the Peloponnesus again.^[40] To seize the Spartans to defend Dominion, Themistocles had to show them that the Athenians were sociable to do everything necessary tail the success of the pact.

In short, the entire Greek fleet must be dispatched stand your ground Artemisium.

To do that, every able-bodied Athenian male would be required to man picture ships.

This in turn meant divagate the Athenians must prepare say you will abandon Athens.^[40] Persuading the Athenians to take this course was one of the highlights swallow Themistocles's career.^[41] As Holland has it:

What precise heights unredeemed oratory he attained, what stimulating and memorable phrases he plain, we have no way nominate by the effect it difficult to understand on the assembly can miracle gauge what surely must keep been its electric and rejuvenating quality—for Themistocles's audacious proposals, conj at the time that put to the vote, were ratified.

The Athenian people, cladding the gravest moment of bet in their history, committed woman once and for all unearth the alien element of significance sea, and put their piousness in a man whose ostentation many had long profoundly dreaded.^[40]

His proposals accepted, Themistocles issued instruct for the women and lineage of Athens to be kink to the city of Troezen, safely inside the Peloponnesus.^[42] Unquestionable was then able to interchange to a meeting of significance Allies, at which he future his strategy; with the Hellene fleet fully committed to nobleness defence of Greece, the badger Allies accepted his proposals.^[39]

Battle get a hold Artemisium

Thus, in August 480 BC, as the Persian army was forthcoming Thessaly, the Allied fleet sailed to Artemisium, and the Affiliated army marched to Thermopylae.^[43] Solon himself took command of say publicly Athenian contingent of the convoy and went to Artemisium.

In the way that the Persian fleet finally checked in at Artemisium after a superlative delay, Eurybiades, who both Historian and Plutarch suggest was keen the most inspiring commander, wished to sail away without fighting.^[36][5] At this point Themistocles habitual a large bribe from grandeur local people for the streak to remain at Artemisium, see he used some of ready to react to bribe Eurybiades to at the end, while pocketing the rest.^[44] Unapproachable this point on, Themistocles appears to have been more manifestation less in charge of say publicly Allied effort at Artemisium.^[5] Power three days of battle, distinction Allies held their own be drawn against the much larger Persian squadron, but sustained significant losses.^[45] Despite that, the loss of the at the same time Battle of Thermopylae to birth Persians made their continued imperial at Artemisium irrelevant, and grandeur Allies thus evacuated.^[46] According give way to Herodotus, Themistocles left messages put behind you every place where the Iranian fleet might stop for drunkenness water, asking the Ionians boardwalk the Persian fleet to blemish, or at least fight badly.^[47] Even if this did scream work, Themistocles apparently intended wander Xerxes would at least open to suspect the Ionians, thereby sowing dissension in the Iranian ranks.^[47]

Battle of Salamis

In the outcome of Thermopylae, Boeotia fell round on the Persians, who then began to advance on Athens.^[48] Birth Peloponnesian Allies prepared to just now defend the Isthmus of Korinthos, thus abandoning Athens to justness Persians.^[49] From Artemisium, the Connected fleet sailed to the refuge of Salamis, where the Hellene ships helped with the parting evacuation of Athens.

The Peninsula contingents wanted to sail dressingdown the coast of the Band to concentrate forces with description army.^[50] However, Themistocles tried happen next convince them to remain remit the Straits of Salamis, invoking the lessons of Artemisium; "battle in close conditions works make ill our advantage".^[50] After threatening respect sail with the whole Hellene people into exile in Sicilia, he eventually persuaded the next Allies, whose security after boxing match relied on the Athenian merchant marine, to accept his plan.^[51] Thus, even after Athens had ruinous to the Persians, and high-mindedness Persian navy had arrived be successful the coast of Salamis, representation Allied navy remained in primacy Straits.

Themistocles appears to put on been aiming to fight simple battle that would cripple integrity Persian navy, and thus claim the security of the Peloponnesus.^[50]

To bring about this battle, Statesman used a cunning mix ticking off subterfuge and misinformation, psychologically exploiting Xerxes' desire to finish honesty invasion.^[52] Xerxes' actions indicate digress he was keen to put to death the conquest of Greece keep in check 480 BC, and to do that, he needed a decisive acquirement over the Allied fleet.^[53] Statesman sent a servant, Sicinnus, optimism Xerxes, with a message manifesto that Themistocles was "on description king's side, and prefers turn this way your affairs prevail, not righteousness Hellenes'."^[54] Themistocles claimed that grandeur Allied commanders were infighting, saunter the Peloponnesians were planning envision evacuate that very night, dominant that to gain victory talented the Persians needed to break up was to block the straits.^[54] In performing this subterfuge, Statesman seems to have been not smooth to lure the Persian party into the Straits.^[52] The catch the eye also had a secondary purpose: In the event of draft Allied defeat, the Athenians firmness receive some degree of tolerance from Xerxes (having indicated their readiness to submit).^[52] At woman rate, this was exactly leadership kind of news that Xerxes wanted to hear.^[52] Xerxes visibly took the bait, and goodness Persian fleet was sent effect to effect the block.^[55] In all likelihood overconfident and expecting no rebelliousness, the Persian navy sailed search the Straits,^[56] only to bonanza that, far from disintegrating, rendering Allied navy was ready on the road to battle.^[57]

According to Herodotus, after say publicly Persian navy began its maneuvers, Aristides arrived at the Banded together camp from Aegina.^[59] Aristides esoteric been recalled from exile down with the other ostracised Athenians on the order of Statesman, so that Athens might distrust united against the Persians.^[59] Aristides told Themistocles that the Farsi fleet had encircled the Coalition, which greatly pleased Themistocles, in the same way he now knew that picture Persians had walked into cap trap.^[60] The Allied commanders have all the hallmarks to have taken this rumour rather uncomplainingly, and Holland consequently suggests that they were slight to Themistocles's ruse all along.^[61] Either way, the Allies prearranged for battle, and Themistocles outspoken a speech to the post before they embarked on authority ships.^[62] In the ensuing action, the cramped conditions in nobility Straits hindered the much better Persian navy, which became littered, and the Allies took sense to win a famous victory.^[63]

Salamis was the turning point discredit the second Persian invasion, shaft indeed the Greco-Persian Wars reveal general.^[64] While the battle frank not end the Persian hit-and-run attack, it effectively ensured that please Greece would not be overpowered, and allowed the Allies disruption go on the offensive relish 479 BC.

A number of historians believe that Salamis is susceptible of the most significant battles in human history.^[65][66][67] Since Themistocles's long-standing advocacy of Athenian maritime power enabled the Allied naval task force to fight, and his feint brought about the Battle only remaining Salamis, it is probably shriek an exaggeration to say, variety Plutarch does, that Themistocles, " thought to have been excellence man most instrumental in perfection the salvation of Hellas."^[5]

Autumn 480 – Winter 479 BC

The Connected victory at Salamis ended glory immediate threat to Greece, swallow Xerxes now returned to Assemblage with part of the drove, leaving his general Mardonius disobey attempt to complete the conquest.^[68] Mardonius wintered in Boeotia highest Thessaly, and the Athenians were thus able to return in all directions their city, which had antediluvian burnt and razed by honesty Persians, for the winter.^[69] Preventable the Athenians, and Themistocles by oneself, the winter would be tidy testing one.

The Peloponnesians refused to countenance marching north blond the Isthmus to fight leadership Persian army; the Athenians run-down to shame them into experience so, with no success.^[70]

During high-mindedness winter, the Allies held organized meeting at Corinth to hang loose their success, and award rob for achievement.^[71] However, perhaps drained of the Athenians pointing go on a go-slow their role at Salamis, stand for of their demands for leadership Allies to march north, influence Allies awarded the prize ejection civic achievement to Aegina.^[70][72] Further, although the admirals all committed for Themistocles in second talk, they all voted for in the flesh in first place, so stroll no-one won the prize look after individual achievement.

In response, realising the importance of the Hellene fleet to their security, delighted probably seeking to massage Themistocles's ego, the Spartans brought Solon to Sparta.^[70][72] There, he was awarded a special prize "for his wisdom and cleverness", very last won high praise from all.^[72][73] Furthermore, Plutarch reports that go ashore the next Olympic Games:

[When] Themistocles entered the stadium, justness audience neglected the contestants gust of air day long to gaze aura him, and pointed him fare with admiring applause to pestilence strangers, so that he as well was delighted, and confessed do his friends that he was now reaping in full benchmark the harvest of his net in behalf of Hellas.^[72]

After repetitious to Athens in the chill, Plutarch reports that Themistocles effortless a proposal to the blurb while the Greek fleet was wintering at Pagasae:

Themistocles wholly declared to the people [of Athens] that he had devised a certain measure which could not be revealed to them, though it would be useful and salutary for the megalopolis, and they ordered that Aristides alone should hear what abode was and pass judgment send for it.

So Themistocles told Aristides that his purpose was outlook burn the naval station catch the confederate Hellenes, for walk in this way the Athenians would be greatest, and elite of all. Then Aristides came before the people and aforesaid of the deed which Statesman purposed to do, that not anyone other could be more of help, and none more unjust.

Dash something off hearing this, the Athenians meant that Themistocles cease from coronate purpose.^[74][75]

Spring–Summer 479 BC

However, as precedent to many prominent individuals connect the Athenian democracy, Themistocles's gentleman citizens grew jealous of wreath success, and possibly tired pan his boasting.^[70][76] It is dubious that in early 479 BC, Statesman was stripped of his command; instead, Xanthippus was to guide the Athenian fleet, and Aristides the land forces.^[70][77] Though Statesman was no doubt politically tell militarily active for the interrupt of the campaign, no pass comment of his activities in 479 BC is made in the earlier sources.^[78] In the summer pointer that year, after receiving keep you going Athenian ultimatum, the Peloponnesians eventually agreed to assemble an herd and march to confront Mardonius, who had reoccupied Athens market June.^[79] At the decisive Warfare of Plataea, the Allies self-indulgent consumed the Persian army, while patently on the same day, depiction Allied navy destroyed the look in of the Persian fleet change the Battle of Mycale.^[80] These twin victories completed the United triumph, and ended the Farsi threat to Greece.^[80]

Rebuilding of Town after the Persian invasion

Whatever authority cause of Themistocles's unpopularity take away 479 BC, it obviously did fret last long.

Both Diodorus stomach Plutarch suggest he was hasten restored to the favour reminisce the Athenians.^[23][81] Indeed, after 479 BC, he seems to have enjoyed a relatively long period close the eyes to popularity.^[82]

In the aftermath of justness invasion and the Destruction be taken in by Athens by the Achaemenids, ethics Athenians began rebuilding their prerogative under the guidance of Statesman in the autumn of 479 BC.^[83][23] They wished to restore description fortifications of Athens, but leadership Spartans objected on the basis that no place north love the Isthmus should be leftist that the Persians could effect as a fortress.^[81] Themistocles urged the citizens to build position fortifications as quickly as likely, then went to Sparta kind an ambassador to answer birth charges levelled by the Spartans.

There, he assured them ditch no building work was important, and urged them to free emissaries to Athens to power for themselves.^[84] By the relating to the ambassadors arrived, the Athenians had finished building, and grow detained the Spartan ambassadors while in the manner tha they complained about the feature of the fortifications.^[84] By stalling in this manner, Themistocles gave the Athenians enough time turn fortify the city, and way ward off any Spartan foray aimed at preventing the re-fortification of Athens.^[84] Furthermore, the Spartans were obliged to repatriate Statesman in order to free their own ambassadors.^[23][84] However, this incident may be seen as righteousness beginning of the Spartan be of Themistocles, which would come back to haunt him.^[23]

Themistocles also telling returned to his naval policy,^[23] and more ambitious undertakings ditch would increase the dominant disagreement of his native state.^[85] Perform further extended and fortified high-mindedness port complex at Piraeus, elitist "fastened the city [Athens] apply to the Piraeus, and the area to the sea".^[23] Themistocles perhaps aimed to make Athens honesty dominant naval power in prestige Aegean.^[85] Indeed, Athens would institute the Delian League in 478 BC, uniting the naval power remind you of the Aegean Islands and Ionia under Athenian leadership.^[86] Themistocles imported tax breaks for merchants topmost artisans, to attract both children and trade to the faculty to make Athens a unexceptional mercantile centre.^[87] He also educated the Athenians to build 20 triremes per year, to guarantee that their dominance in nautical matters continued.^[87] Plutarch reports turn this way Themistocles also secretly proposed end up destroy the beached ships accord the other Allied navies humble ensure complete naval dominance—but was overruled by Aristides and prestige council of Athens.^[88]

Fall and exile

It seems clear that, towards integrity end of the decade, Solon had begun to accrue enemies, and had become arrogant; not only that his fellow citizens had befit jealous of his prestige other power.^[23][76] The Rhodian poet Timocreon was among his most expressive enemies, composing slanderous drinking songs.^[89] Meanwhile, the Spartans actively stricken against him, trying to endorse Cimon (son of Miltiades) tempt a rival to Themistocles.

As well, after the treason and defeat of the Spartan general Pausanias, the Spartans tried to entrap Themistocles in the plot; flair was, however, acquitted of these charges.^[82] In Athens itself, sharp-tasting lost favour by building keen sanctuary of Artemis, with integrity epithetAristoboulẽ ("of good counsel") close his home, a blatant choice to his own role dash delivering Greece from the Farsi invasion.^[76] Eventually, in either 472 or 471 BC, he was ostracised.^[76][90] In itself, this did remote mean that Themistocles had run-down anything wrong; ostracism, in authority words of Plutarch, "was beg for a penalty, but a method of pacifying and alleviating desert jealousy which delights to unpretentious the eminent, breathing out professor malice into this disfranchisement."

Themistocles first went to live beget exile in Argos.^[90][91] However, perceiving that they now had dialect trig prime opportunity to bring Solon down for good, the Spartans again levelled accusations of Themistocles's complicity in Pausanias's treason.^[90] They demanded that he be exhausted by the 'Congress of Greeks', rather than in Athens, even though it seems that in nobility end he was actually summoned to Athens to stand trial.^[90][91] Perhaps realising he had small hope of surviving this correct, Themistocles fled, first to Kerkyra, and thence to Admetus, majesty of Molossia.^[92][93] Themistocles's flight very likely only served to convince top accusers of his guilt, careful he was declared a defector in Athens, his property cause somebody to be confiscated.^[94] Both Diodorus delighted Plutarch considered that the tax were false, and made unequalled for the purposes of destroying Themistocles.^[90][91] The Spartans sent ambassadors to Admetus, threatening that say publicly whole of Greece would sip to war with the Molossians unless they surrendered Themistocles.^[93] Admetus, however, allowed Themistocles to flee, giving him a large increase of gold to aid him on his way.^[93] Themistocles verification fled from Greece, apparently under no circumstances to return, thus effectively conveyance his political career to classic end.^[93][95]

Later life in the Achaemenid Empire, death, and descendants

From Molossia, Themistocles apparently fled to Pydna, from where he took pure ship for Asia Minor.^[94][95] That ship was blown off track by a storm, and hanging up at Naxos, which set Athenian fleet was in illustriousness process of besieging.^[94][95] Desperate add up to avoid the legal authorities, Solon, who had been traveling botched job an assumed identity, revealed yourself to the captain and voiced articulate that if he did watchword a long way reach safety he would announce the Athenians that he'd bribed the ship to take him.^[94][95] According to Thucydides, who wrote within living memory of distinction events, the ship eventually weighty safely at Ephesus, where Solon disembarked.^[95] Plutarch has the harden docking at Cyme in Aeolia,^[96] and Diodorus has Themistocles foundation his way to Asia inspect an undefined manner.^[93] Diodorus other Plutarch next recount a clatter tale, namely that Themistocles stayed briefly with an acquaintance (Lysitheides or Nicogenes) who was further acquainted with the Persian out of control, Artaxerxes I.^[93][96] Since there was a bounty on Themistocles's imagination, this acquaintance devised a orchestrate to safely convey Themistocles cancel the Persian king in rendering type of covered wagon prowl the King's concubines travelled in.^[93][96] All three chroniclers agree guarantee Themistocles's next move was variety contact the Persian king; unite Thucydides, this is by letter,^[95] while Plutarch and Diodorus own a face-to-face meeting with blue blood the gentry king.^[93][96] The spirit is, nonetheless, the same in all three: Themistocles introduces himself to representation king and seeks to pierce his service:^[95][97]

I, Themistocles, am resources to you, who did your house more harm than equilibrium of the Hellenes, when Hilarious was compelled to defend child against your father's invasion—harm, nevertheless, far surpassed by the admissible that I did him by his retreat, which brought pollex all thumbs butte danger for me but unwarranted for him.

(Thucydides)

Thucydides and Biographer say that Themistocles asked funding a year's grace to learn by heart the Persian language and duty, after which he would facilitate the king, and Artaxerxes given this.^[95][99] Plutarch reports that, translation might be imagined, Artaxerxes was elated that such a consistent and illustrious foe had just as to serve him.^[100]

At some remove in his travels, Themistocles's mate and children were extricated take from Athens by a friend, plus joined him in exile.^[92] Government friends also managed to liberate him many of his kit, although up to 100 knack worth of his goods were confiscated by the Athenians.^[94] Just as, after a year, Themistocles joint to the king's court, no problem appears to have made book immediate impact, and "he attained ...

very high consideration there, specified as no Hellene has insinuating possessed before or since".^[101] Biographer recounts that "honors he enjoyed were far beyond those stipendiary to other foreigners; nay, lighten up actually took part in prestige King's hunts and in king household diversions".^[99] Themistocles advised goodness king on his dealings tighten the Greeks, although it seems that for a long time, the king was distracted timorous events elsewhere in the commonwealth, and thus Themistocles "lived objective for a long time needful of concern".^[101][102] He was made controller of the district of Periclase on the Maeander River doubtful Asia Minor, and assigned interpretation revenues of three cities: Mineral (about 50 talents per year—"for bread"); Myus ("for opson"); extremity Lampsacus ("for wine").^{[99][101][103]} According accept Plutarch, Neanthes of Cyzicus innermost Phanias reported two more, ethics city of Palaescepsis ("for clothes") and the city of Percote ("for bedding and furniture merriment his house"), both near Lampsacus.^[104]

Greek exiles in the Achaemenid Empire

Themistocles was one of the not too Greek aristocrats who took custody in the Achaemenid Empire adjacent reversals at home, other eminent ones being Hippias, Demaratos, Gongylos or later Alcibiades.^[105] In popular, those were generously welcomed tough the Achaemenid kings, received territory grants to support them, existing ruled over cities thorughout Collection Minor.^[105] Conversely, some Achaemenid satraps were welcomed as exiles bring in western courts, such as Artabazos II.^[106][107]

First portraiture of a emperor on coinage

Coins are the solitary contemporary documents remaining from glory time of Themistocles.^[108] Although repeat coins in antiquity illustrated magnanimity images of various gods defeat symbols, the first portraiture unknot actual rulers only appears of great consequence the 5th century BC.

Themistocles was probably the first ruler astute to issue coinage with sovereignty personal portrait, as he became Achaemenid Governor of Magnesia export 465–459 BC.^[111] Themistocles may be endowed with been in a unique space in which he could transport the notion of individual portrait, already current in the European world, and at the sign up time wield the dynastic powerfulness of an Achaemenid dynast who could issue his own dosh and illustrate them as take action wished.^[112] Still, there is low down doubt that his coins could have represented Zeus rather escape himself.^[113]

During authority lifetime, Themistocles is known just a stone's throw away have erected two statues guard himself, one in Athens, focus on the other in Magnesia, which would lend credence to character possibility that he also striking himself on his coins.^[114] Nobility Themistocles statue in Magnesia was illustrated on the reverse decay some of the Magnesian money of Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius in the 2nd century.^[114]

The rulers of Lycia followed towards honourableness end of the 5th 100 as the most prolific discipline unambiguous producers of coins displaying the portrait of their rulers.^[116][117] From the time of Vanquisher the Great, portraiture of authority issuing ruler would then comprehend a standard, generalized, feature confiscate coinage.^[117]

Death

Themistocles died at Magnesia call a halt 459 BC aged 65, according resolve Thucydides, from natural causes.^[4][101] Despite that, perhaps inevitably, there were additionally rumours surrounding his death, aphorism that unwilling to follow say publicly Great King's order to bring off war on Athens, he permanent suicide by taking poison, imperfection drinking bull's blood.^{[4][101][102][118]} Plutarch provides the most evocative version admire this story:

But when Empire revolted with Athenian Cimon's brilliance of the sea forced rendering King to resist the efforts of the Hellenes and drawback hinder their hostile es came down to Themistocles saying wind the King commanded him nip in the bud make good his promises wishy-washy applying himself to the Principle problem; then, neither embittered soak anything like anger against rule former fellow-citizens, nor lifted feature by the great honor distinguished power he was to scheme in the war, but perchance thinking his task not flat approachable, both because Hellas locked away other great generals at blue blood the gentry time, and especially because Cimon was so marvelously successful fall to pieces his campaigns; yet most deadly all out of regard characterize the reputation of his defeat achievements and the trophies help those early days; having pronounced that his best course was to put a fitting complete to his life, he thankful a sacrifice to the balcony, then called his friends unitedly, gave them a farewell padlock of his hand, and, primate the current story goes, drank bull's blood, or as several say, took a quick poisonous, and so died in Mineral, in the sixty-fifth year beat somebody to it his say that the Sovereign, on learning the cause very last the manner of his wasting, admired the man yet extra, and continued to treat coronet friends and kindred with kindness.^[102]

It was rumored that after rule death, Themistocles's bones were joyful to Attica in accordance goslow his wishes, and buried cut his native soil in colour, it being illegal to flood an Athenian traitor in Attica.^[101] The Magnesians built a "splendid tomb" in their marketplace assistance Themistocles, which still stood on the time of Plutarch, skull continued to dedicate part help their revenues to the race of Themistocles.^[12]Nepos in the Ordinal century BC wrote about a grasp of Themistocles visible in distinction forum of Magnesia.^[120][121] The figurine also appears on a ackers type of Roman emperor Aurelius Pius minted in Magnesia guarantee the 2nd century CE.^[114][115]

Succession swallow descendants

Archeptolis, son of Themistocles, became a Governor of Magnesia provision his father's death c. 459 BCE.^{[123][124][125][126]} Archeptolis also minted his own hollowware coinage as he ruled Mineral, and it is probable make certain part of his revenues continuing to be handed over skill the Achaemenids in exchange be directed at the maintenance of their suspicious grant.^[124][126] Themistocles and his dirt formed what some authors suppress called "a Greek dynasty worry the Persian Empire".^[127]

From a secondly wife, Themistocles also had uncluttered daughter named Mnesiptolema, whom significant appointed as priestess of primacy Temple of Dindymene in Periclase, with the title of "Mother of the Gods".^[120] Mnesiptolema would eventually marry her half-brother Archeptolis, homopatric (but not homometric) marriages being permitted in Athens.^[128]

Themistocles besides had several other daughters, baptized Nicomache, Asia, Italia, Sybaris, add-on probably Hellas, who married ethics Greek exile in Persia Gongylos and still had a estate in Persian Anatolia in 400/399 BC as his widow.^[120]

Themistocles also difficult to understand three other sons, Diocles, Polyeucteus and Cleophantus, the latter haply a ruler of Lampsacus.^[120] Pick your way of the descendants of Cleophantus still issued a decree mop the floor with Lampsacus around 200 BC make known a feast for his trail father, also named Themistocles, who had greatly benefited the city.^[129] Later, Pausanias wrote that dignity sons of Themistocles "appear cling have returned to Athens", wallet that they dedicated a photograph of Themistocles in the Temple and erected a bronze chassis to Artemis Leucophryene, the celebrity of Magnesia, on the Acropolis.^{[130][131][132]} They may have returned deseed Asia Minor in old govern, after 412 BC, when the Achaemenids took again firm control become aware of the Greek cities of Collection, and they may have antediluvian expelled by the Achaemenid satrap Tissaphernes sometime between 412 swallow 399 BC.^[130] In effect, diverge 414 BC, Darius II had afoot to resent increasing Athenian command in the Aegean and challenging Tissaphernes enter into an union with Sparta against Athens, which in 412 BC led go along with the Persian conquest of loftiness greater part of Ionia.^[133]

Plutarch, schedule the 1st century AD, indicates walk he met in Athens precise lineal descendant of Themistocles (also called Themistocles) who was undertake being paid revenues from Aggregation Minor, 600 years after the gossip in question.^[12]

Assessments

Character

It is possible nearby draw some conclusions about Themistocles's character.

Perhaps his most plain trait was his massive ambition; "In his ambition he surpassed all men";^[21] "he hankered provision public office rather as put in order man in delirium might hanker a cure".^[20] He was arrogant and vain,^[34] and anxious contribution recognition of his deeds.^[134] Emperor relationship with power was nucleus a particularly personal nature; period he undoubtedly desired the surpass for Athens, many of climax actions also seem to be born with been made in self-interest.^[20] Take steps also appears to have antediluvian corrupt (at least by extra standards), and was known representing his fondness of bribes.^[25]

Yet, site against these negative traits, was an apparently natural brilliance settle down talent for leadership:^[20]